January 5th, 2009
The anti-flouride brigade are correct, Brisbane’s water does now taste and smell awful. I only noticed today. It sort of smells like wet gravel and tastes like it has rocks in it. The colour is OK, but the smell and taste are disgusting.
I hope the south-east corner’s water quality becomes a huge election issue. I really don’t care too much about the flouride, but the new smell and taste of Brisbane water is enough to swing my vote. Anna, it’s time for another backflip.
Do a Kevin, turn off the flouride and commission a 20 year long working committee.
Here’s some comments from the Courier Mail.
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January 2nd, 2009
Once you have decided on possible positionings for your product or service, it’s wise to research them and see which of them your market finds believable and appealing.
For example, one of our clients sells a wide range of bathrooms and home hardware to the public through shops. We wanted to find out what the right positioning for them could be - and then reflect it in their marketing.
Accordingly, a number of lines were written, each reflecting a different position. I am going to give you these lines with a brief indication as to how customers reacted to them. This should prove thought-provoking if you ever feel tempted to brag or misrepresent what you offer.
- ‘The best DIY store in town’ - consumers appreciated that the stores were not DIY outlets, so this was seen as inaccurate.
- ‘The ideal home improvement store’ - consumers thought this dealt only in superlatives, which were glib and self-congratulatory.
- ‘The store for top quality home improvements at value for money prices’ - consumers thought this was not distinctive; it was overused phraseology; nor did it appear credible - people expect to pay a premium price for quality.
- ‘The home improvement store where service really is personal service’ - the idea of service was good news, but not enough; products had to be good, too. In any case, this claim was seen as something other stores like Marks & Spencer could make.
- ‘Find out what “the trade” has always known’ - people had mixed feelings about the trade. Some thought of it in association with craftsmanship; others thought of cheap workmanship and cowboy operators.
- ‘The store traditionally used by the trade’ - here the same negatives aroused by the previous trade line came up, though in a better sense because of the use of the word ‘traditionally’. One problem, however, is that the line implies such products need proper experience to install.
- ‘Made to last by us. Sold direct to you’ - this conveyed that the company was personally involved in the making of the products, as opposed to being an importer.
Moreover, the line was seen as patriotic, because it clearly meant these were UK goods. It also conveyed craftsmanship, durability and the good value you get by buying direct. Readers also appreciated that the line was to the point, not gimmicky. This line came out on top.
Successful companies tend to have a clear positioning from which they rarely if ever deviate - and then only with great care. I make no apology for reintroducing American Express. It was positioned single-mindedly for many years as ‘the world’s most prestigious financial instrument for business travel or entertainment’. This positioning came out in everything American Express did. For instance, the letter sent out to solicit new members which began: ‘Quite frankly the American Express card is not for everyone …’. This reflected the positioning so well that for many years in most countries of the world it was the most cost-effective direct mail used.
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December 31st, 2008
Alcohol, or Ethyl Alcohol, is an intoxicating ingredient found in alcoholic beverages. Alcoholic beverages can be categorised into three generic classes: beers, wines and spirits. Ethanol is a psychoactive drug that is found to have a depressant effect on all human beings.
Everyday millions of people around the world suffer from negative after-effects of drinking alcohol without even knowing that they already have become a victim of alcohol abuse. An innocent social habit gradually crosses over a physiological and psychological addiction to turn people into a heavy drinker. Over the time excessive consumption of alcohol will take its toll on the human body.
The Chemistry
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is produced by fermentation, a process that involves metabolism of carbohydrates by certain species of yeast in absence of oxygen.
How Much is OK?
Alcohol by volume or ABV defines the concentration of alcohol in a drink, in percentage by weight, abbreviated as w/w (weight/weight) or in proof. The proof measurement is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees of Fahrenheit (i.e. 80 proof = 40% ABV).
Governments of some countries have defined limit on consumption of alcohol based on their geography, weather patterns and public health statistics. Basic recommendation of having alcohol defined by the Govt. of Australia is as follows:
* Men should not exceed 4 units or 40g of absolute alcohol per day on regular basis or 28 units per week
* Women should not exceed 2 units or 20g of absolute alcohol per day on regular basis or 14 units per week
In simpler version, one unit refers to 10g of pure alcohol in Australian standard whereas 8g or roughly 10ML of pure alcohol is equivalent to one unit in the UK. Current UK guidelines recommend men not to exceed 3 or 4 units per day.
Biologically, women body composition has less water than men. Even if the women and men have same size and same weight, the women tend to get drunk faster than men, which is why the recommended limit of consumption of alcohol is lower for women regardless of geographical location or country.
Alcohol Dependence
People, who drink very frequently, start to be dependent on alcohol and become addictive to the alcohol. Listed below are some of the symptoms and habits that help doctors determine whether a patient is dependent on alcohol or not:
* A strong urge to consume alcohol
* Physical withdrawal system, e.g. shaking, agitation, nausea and sweating when patient tries to reduce drinking
* A growing tolerance to alcohol
* Neglecting other activities
* Persistent drinking
Short-term and Long-term effects
Effects of alcohol change over the time. At the beginning alcohol makes people feel relaxed and cheerful, but further consumption leads to blurred vision, slurred speech, loss of balance and coordination problems. Large amounts of drink at one time may lead to unconsciousness, or even death.
Drinking alcohol for a prolonged period of time will cause physical damage and increase the chances of getting diseases such as alcohol-related liver disease, cardiovascular disease, brain damage, neurological problems, vitamin deficiency and some forms of cancer. Obesity, sexual problems, infertility and skin problems also directly linked with excessive drinking.
Social effects
Alcohol can have negative effects on daily social life. In most of the cases people shy away from the heavy drinker and do not socialize with the addicted person.
Alcohol can also make a person say things they do not mean to say at all. Alcohol intoxication can lead to rapes, unintended pregnancies, ruined relationships and other unwelcome incidents that do not happen in a normal life.
Conclusion
Drinking alcohol does not necessarily have to be associated with ?producing negative impacts?. In fact, moderate drinking with plenty of water and appetizers can be quite enjoyable.
Excessive drinking does not only bring about social embarrassments and arouse intensity to commit criminal acts, but it also has as adverse effect on the human body. Once addicted, it?s not easy to quit alcohol, but it is possible to do so with medical help and social support.
If you are an alcohol abuse or you have a problem with alcohol consult with physician right away.
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The responsible service of alcohol is an initiative by Australian State and local Governments to reduce the social and health problems associated with alcohol. RSA online training is available from South Bank Institute of Technology as well as RSA face-to-face RSA courses.
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December 31st, 2008
Advertising and the promotion of alcohol in the media and through sport sponsorships is a major contributing factor to the ongoing alcohol problem in Australian society. Teenagers are especially at risk from campaigns that mix sexual attraction with alcohol.
Advertising that appeals to teenagers, links alcohol with sexual and sporting success, and encourages questionable standards of taste and morality has been heaviliy criticised by social commentators and health professionals.
They argue that such advertising seriously violates a corporate duty of care towards the Australian community.
In recent years, alcohol consumption has been promoted on Australian television through commercials with overtly sexual themes. In one such ad, a talking polar bear and a group of men eavesdrop on a young woman sitting at a bar. She credits alcohol with success in finding casual sex,and the men make no secret of the fact that this is what they like to hear.
Another commercial shows a young woman lifting her T-shirt and flaunting her breasts to a young man she has just beaten in a game.
A recent beer poster depicted a drawing of a young and attractive woman holding a bottle of beer in one hand and lifting her dress with the other.
These types of beer promotions, clearly designed to attract young drinkers, evoke subtle, but unrealistic sexual expectations associated with drinking alcohol and contribute to unhealthy relationships.
In an approach to sell alcohol to young people, hundreds of thousands of leaflets were used to promote web sites that encouraged school leavers to join a party with a particular alcoholic beverage.
Another web site posted by a large Australian beer manufacturer promoted free beer to fuel university student parties and offered the chance to become a “Citizen of the Keg.”
Sport is an important part of many people’s lives and sports venues have been targeted by alcohol manufactures for promotion of their products, thereby building an association between sport, sporting heros and alcohol to boost sales.
However, the link between alcohol consumption and antisocial behaviour at these venues has become so obvious that in 2003 the New South Wales Police Association took the unprecedented step of asking for alcohol to be banned at major sporting venues.
The police association cited examples of very attractive young women, with the names of alcoholic products printed across their bikini bottoms, selling alcohol at sports venues.
A similar social problem exists with the new ranges of alcoholic beverages that look like soft drinks and appeal to younger and, in particular, female drinkers. These drinks are often referred to as “Alcopops”
Some bottles of these premixed drinks, which are often brightly coloured and usually contain vodka or bourbon, have the words Cola or Lemonade in far larger print than other words on the label.
The promotion of these products in this way is another example of corporate violations of duty of care, and should be stopped.
Clearly, the present situation of alcohol trading is unacceptable in terms of the health and social costs the community is required to bear.
Measures to limit the availability of alcohol—such as through licensing drinkers, banning advertisements, banning discounted drinks and free entertainment, banning drink-driving and so on—will go a long way toward reducing the cost of alcohol to society.
While these control measures are essential, they will not, by themselves, reduce the social and health costs of alcohol to an acceptable level.
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The responsible service of alcohol is an initiative by various Australian State Governments to reduce social problems associated with alcohol.RSA online training is available via South Bank Institute of Technology as well as face-to-face RSA courses.
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December 31st, 2008
The marital union of, usually, a man and a woman is a life cycle event celebrated in all cultures and is the focus of considerable folklore. This begins with beliefs and customs that may be observed in the lead-up to the wedding day.
For example, in many Christian or European societies it is widely believed to be unlucky for the bride and groom to see each other for twenty-four hours ? sometimes more, sometimes less ? before the wedding.
The wedding car may be decorated with streamers and also, of late, with a Barbie Doll, dressed in the same material as the bridesmaids’ dresses, attached to the bonnet. Other mascots and forms of decoration are also common, including the traditional white ribbons.
Beliefs and customs relevant to the wedding day itself vary widely. In Lithuanian tradition, for instance, it is a popular custom to prevent the bride and groom from entering the reception. The groom must convince the guardians at the door and the guests that he and his bride should be allowed in.
Gifts are offered as an inducement. Barring the way to the fully wed state, with all its attendant rights and obligations, is a widespread facet of wedding customs, a rite of passage that marks the transition of the newlyweds from unmarried to married. Barring customs are also reported in British, American, Japanese and Carpathian tradition.
There are many interesting and colourful wedding customs observed in different ethnic and religious groups in Australia, such as stamping on a drinking glass (Jewish), linking ribbon coronets worn by bride and groom (Greek), the groom arriving at the wedding on horseback (Indian), and sugared almonds being given to wedding guests (Greek, Italian and many other ethnic groups).
The custom of giving sugared almonds has also been reported in France, Wales, England, Scotland, Israel and Belgium. In other places, raw nuts are considered appropriate food and/or gifts at weddings, a continuation of the widespread association of nuts and fertility, though in Italian tradition the nuts are generally said to symbolise good luck.
Almost always, an Australian wedding ceremony is followed by a reception, supper or party for the newlyweds and their friends and families. Often held at a reception centre or other public facility hired for the purpose, wedding receptions may also take place in the home of the bride or groom.
Characteristic elements include music, dance, song, food and drink, and speeches and toasts by the father of the bride, best man and groom. It is the duty of the best man to read out telegrams, letters, cards and faxes from absent well-wishers on this occasion.
In the past, these messages may have been of a playfully suggestive nature, though this feature seems to have faded from the contemporary observance of the custom. The gifts to the newlyweds are usually displayed at the reception.
It is important to note the dramatic changes in marriage practices in Australia even in the last twenty years, and their consequent effect on wedding customs. These changes have been documented by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, and the 2001 Census shows changes such as the rise in non-church weddings.
Civil celebrants performed 53% of marriages in 2001, and of all marriages, 32% of all marriages, church and celebrant, are estimated to end in divorce.
In the same census, 72% of couples stated that they had cohabited before marriage, although this does not stop many of these couples eventually celebrating a legal marriage, sometimes with their children present, in simple or elaborate ceremonies which may be devised by the bride and groom themselves.
Another marked change in Australian society is the high rate of intermarriage between couples of different ethnic origins. All of these changes suggest that social commentators, need to be cautious about making pronouncements about marriage, or weddings, in Australia.
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December 31st, 2008
As so often in Australia’s history, Melbourne was founded through deception when explorer John Batman, an Australian fluent in several aboriginal languages, made a “deal” with aborigines to lease land on behalf of speculators.
While offering the Aborigines any compensation at all was progressive in a colonial culture that preferred to simply run them off the land, the fact that the native people had little understanding of rents, leases or indeed, the concept that land was something to be bought, sold and leased at all, made his arrangements no less exploitive. In return for a long term lease of 240,000 hectares of the finest grazing land in Australia, Batman gave the aborigines axes, salt, flour, blankets and jewelry. The total value of the goods was said to have been around £200.
Colonial rulers later declared his leases invalid, claiming that the government, not the Aborigines, were the true owners of the land. After paying Batman compensation, they took over the territory and founded a settlement as the seat of regional government. The settlement became the city of Melbourne in 1837, named after Viscount Melbourne, the British prime minister at the time.
A sensible town plan
Melbourne’s location was its strongest feature. While the “acquired” farmland was of excellent quality, the city’s location on the banks of the Yarra River and well protected Port Phillip Bay contributed to its rapid commercial development. The influx of energetic immigrants and eager investors from England were determinants in the economic growth of the young city.
Once the city had 5,000 residents, city planners intervened and imposed a strict grid plan to check chaotic growth in every direction. Melbourne’s planners decreed that every main street would be exactly 30 metres wide, with perpendicular side streets one third that width. The strict grid plan has been in place ever since.
Melbourne became the capital of the new Victoria Colony in 1851. As luck would have it, miners in the outback came upon a rich seam of gold just four days later. Melbourne prospered like no other city on the continent, even after the gold rush waned.
A second boom was sparked by industrial development and immigration after World War II. Melbourne’s population more than tripled, and the plains around the Yarra River gradually grew crowded as 3 million people from 140 nations arrived to claim their piece of the Australian dream.
City planners again stepped in, authorising the construction and development of suburbs and satellite towns. In the downtown commercial districts, Melbourne began building upward and skyscrapers shot up on the horizon.
A rather unassuming city, Melbourne’s grand sights are few in comparison to trendy Sydney. Of course, there is still a great deal to see, including the Melbourne Museum, the State Parliament, the royal exhibition buildings, the Stock Market, majestic St. Patrick’s Cathedral and Flinders Street Station. Freshwater Place is a luxury residential complex, with a striking, elegant design that makes it Australia’s thinnest building as well as one of its tallest.
Melbourne is well known for book shops, live shows and the arts. Many northerners desperate for culture travel south to Melbourne for their arts fix. Melbourne hosts a world class writers festival and comedy festival.
Melbourne is also renowned for sports. The annual Melbourne Formula 1 Grand Prix held at the Albert Park Circuit is famous around the world, but there are many more sporting highlights to experience.
The professional tennis season starts here with the Australian Open, drawing the best players in the world to compete in the first of four major tournaments. Local sports attract an even greater following.
When the Magpies, Bombers and Kangaroos take the field, life is frozen in time. Melbourne’s football players have always been their sports heroes, but cricket and rugby are also popular. The Grand Final of the Australian Football League (AFL) takes place each year at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. One of the eight Melbourne teams usually participates.
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December 30th, 2008
After climbing 508 metres up the Taipei 101 tower, the highest structure in the world, it can be seen easily from anywhere in the city, one can look down on the genuine Taipei amidst all the modern buildings: temples, markets, the National Palace Museum and in between them, the many old streets and lanes where everyday life in Taipei actually happens.
Initial steps
There was a swamp here about 300 years ago, right where one of Asia’s most modern cities now stands. Only the Pingpu, the original people of Formosa, who lived in the higher lying regions around the Taipei Basin, were able to reach this area by canoe.
Han Chinese from mainland China came later to fish and trade, but they stayed on the banks of the Tarsui River and did not travel into the area of modern Taipei. In 1709, a Chinese farmer named Chen Lai Chang from Chuanchou laid the cornerstone of a farm in Takala, which is now central Taipei. From that point onwards, the number of settlers continually increased. The original settlement was known as Manka.
From Manka to Tataocheng
The administration of Manka and the surrounding area was mainly handled by immigrants from various parts of mainland China. Because of differing views regarding the future of the administrative structure, tensions between the residents soon escalated. The violent confrontations that resulted came to an end in 1823.
One of the groups that was defeated fled from Manka, on the bank of the Tamsui River, to Tataocheng. There they began to make the land farmable land laid the foundations for a flourishing community. Tataocheng surpassed Manka in the nineteenth century, and became the centre of Taipei Prefecture in 1875.
Fast modernisation
When the Japanese colonised Taipei in 1895, they built their main district in Taipei, and the city continued to develop steadily thereafter, even after the departure of the occupiers in 1945 and after the break with mainland China. Within a hundred years, the once rural district had developed into the administrative, economic and cultural centre of Taiwan.
Manka, Tataocheng and Chengnei have all lost their original appearance, but a number of historically important sites have been preserved, including the Lin Family Villa and Garden, once the home of a very powerful clan in the 19th century, as well as the Peace Park and the 1919 Presidential Palace.
Modern city with old traditions
Today, all glass office high rises, luxury condominiums and modern shopping districts are situated along wide, tree lined boulevards. Elegant restaurants, stylish nightclubs and appearances by international stars are all part of people’s lives. Yet the traditional culture and way of life carries on below the contemporary surface.
Everywhere you go, you stumble on timeless scenes: believers praying to their gods in ancient temples, long religious processions winding their way through the streets to the accompaniment of firecrackers, and little shops offering herbal medicines that have been relied upon for millennia. Clearly, this is one of the oldest cultures in the world.
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December 29th, 2008
The Lithuanian city of Vilnius exudes southern charm under the northern sun. Positioned in the natural amphitheatre of the surrounding Lithuanian hills, Vilnilus has a lot to offer visitors interested in historical architecture.
Vilnius, which can look back on a thousand years of Lithuanian history, boasts one of the largest historical town centres in Eastern Europe. Among its almost 1,500 buildings are representatives of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. Vilnius has wonderful examples of architecture from the Gothic, Renaissance, baroque, neoclassical and Jugendstil periods, all of which are located within easy walking distance of the city centre. The uniqueness of the Old City of Vilnius led to its inclusion on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1994.
Heathens and Christians.
After most of Europe had adopted Christianity and prayed to a single Christian God, the population of Vilnius continued to pray to their pantheon of heathen deities. For centuries, it mattered little. Founded in the eleventh century as a walled fortress at the convergence of the Vilnia and Neris Rivers, the city has always been well protected from invaders.
Nevertheless, it wasn’t until Vilnius became the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Prince Gediminas in 1323 that other nations took an interest in its economic potential. The German confederation, Poland and the Russian czar all cast their envious eyes on Vilnius, each wanting a portion of its wealth and prosperity. Merchants, businessmen and priests arrived in droves, and with them came Christian missionaries. Soon afterward, most Lithuanians finally became Christian.
The Jesuits in Vilnius.
As a result, unlike many of the other cities in the Baltic region, Vilnius became an eastern outpost of the Roman Catholic Church, and a multitude of glorious baroque churches and buildings greets visitors today. In the wake of the Reformation, a period of intensive building activity was begun under the patronage of the Jesuit order.
Jesuit activities were also at the heart of Vilnius’ intellectual revival, as the first Jesuit University was founded in 1579. Today, the University Quarter is recognized as a one of a kind architectural ensemble. Its buildings were inspired primarily by the styles of the early Italian baroque. Its courtyards, the church of St. John the Baptist, the clock tower, the observatory and the library are unparalleled anti City of churches. Vilnius lost its political significance following the union of Lithuania with Poland in 1569.
From this point onwards, rulers and occupying forces came and went. The city suffered greatly, again and again bowing to the will of more powerful nations. The construction of churches, however, continued unabated and Vilnius became known as “the Rome of the East”, a city noted for its abundance of churches and cloisters. Rapid growth continued to attract craftsmen, artists and labourers to the city, and by the beginning of the nineteenth century, Vilnius was the third most populous city in eastern Europe: only Moscow and St. Petersburg were larger.
Vilnius today.
After fifty years of occupation by the USSR, Lithuania obtained its independence in 1990, and Vilnius was made the capital of the modern, democratic state. Lithuanians are busy restoring their city today, in full awareness of the importance of history.
More than buildings need to be restored; the very identity of Vilnius needs to be restored as well. As the Lithuanian government proudly proclaims, “here we are not only repairing the facades, but also the foundations”. The president of Lithuania resides in a residence near the towers of the university, in the midst of the lively Old City. An office and business quarter has recently been established nearby, on the opposite bank of the Neris River. Vilnius, already a growing tourist destination, has set its sight on once again becoming the economic centre of the Baltic.
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December 29th, 2008
Mumbai, once known as Bombay, is one of the most populated cities in the world. In 1533, when the Portuguese set up Bom Bahia, which means “good bay”, no one could have predicted how Mumbai would work out.
In India there is no official system in place to register the population and addresses. This makes any calculation of the population of Mumbai a highly inaccurate task. This rambling city is modern India’s centre for business and commerce, its financial capital and site of the the largest money market in the country. The Bombay Stock Exchange, founded in 1875 and based in Mumbai, is the oldest in Asia. Mumbai is also home to the largest film industry in the world. Even Hollywood cannot match the sheer number of films that are produced in Bollywood.
Mumbai is a city of contrasts where gleaming skyscrapers stand side by side with decrepit shacks, where air conditioned tourist buses cruise along next to ox carts. Business goes on day and night. European style shopping centres, recreation venues, bars, discos and pubs are everywhere. Whatever your taste, whatever you desire, you can probably find it in Mumbai. Multiplex cinemas are found on every street because Indians have a love affair with movies. As is the case with many large cities, Mumbai is also burdened with a long list of social problems. The biggest problem is the size and growth of the population.
Land is scarce, and the cost of living is extremely high compared to the rest of the country. Approximately 6 million people live in slums today, making up nearly half of the city’s population. Many of the poor, unable to afford Mumbai’s comparatively costly housing costs, live far outside the city centre in impoverished commuter communities. Many spend several hours a day travelling to work via Mumbai’s extensive rail and bus system.
Mumbai is not an easy, relaxing city to visit and it is not exactly filled with typical tourist attractions. Nevertheless, if you are ready and willing to travel to every corner of the city, there are certainly some beautiful places to see. The home where Mahatma Gandhi lived from 1917 until 1934, for example, is open to the public. Known locally as Mani Bhavan, it includes a museum and research centre devoted to the life and work of its famous former occupant.
The Gateway of India is also worth a visit. This monumental gateway directly on the harbour is a symbol of both Old Bombay and modern Mumbai. It was constructed in 1911 to welcome King George V and his queen, Maria von Teck on the occasion of their visit to the city. Boat tours of the harbour leave from this point, offering the best views of the Mumbai skyline, with the Gateway of India in the foreground and the Taj Mahal Hotel in the background. It is also possible to take a boat ride to Elephanta Island, where the Temple Cave of the Lord Shiva is located, one of the two UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the city.
The second UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mumbai is the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, formerly known as Victoria Terminal. Dedicated in 1888, it has long been one of the largest and busiest railway stations on Earth. Its imposing scale was deliberately designed as an assertion of British claims to power and the right to rule. Architect Frederick Stevens designed a functional building that is nothing short of monumental, combining the neoGothic style of the early Victorian era with elements derived from traditional Indian architecture. Richly ornamented, with every detail precisely rendered, this magnificent behemoth is under threat today from the damage done by smog and acid rain. From a purely practical point of view, the train station remains as important today as it once was to British colonial administrators. Over 1,000 trains pass through the station daily, carrying an average of 3 million passengers.
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December 28th, 2008
Located in the centre of Europe, Vienna is both a lively modern metropolis and a city known for its coffee houses, historic districts, stunning parks, elegant squares and romantic courtyards.
Vienna means cafe culture, music and wine. Where else can one so contentedly spend all day sitting in a cafe, reading the newspaper, sipping a Viennese coffee or quaffing a glass or two of wine?
Roman Vindobona, founded in the year 15 CE, was completely levelled by the Germanic migrations of the fourth and fifth centuries. With the Roman legions long gone, only a small settlement remained. The name Vindobona is likely a version of the Celtic “Vedunia”, which means “torrent”, a reference to the settlement’s position on the banks of the famous Danube River.
Vienna was a city of doubtful reputation at the end of the twelfth century. Its ruler, Duke Leopold V, was involved in the kidnap of the English king, Richard Lionheart, on his way back from the Crusades. The two noblemen had clashed during the Third Crusade.
Forced to stop in Vienna, Richard was recognised and jailed. An enormous ransom was paid for his release, roughly twenty five tons of silver, an enormous sum for those days. The duke used the silver to start a mint, the vast profits from which enabled him to expand the city and build new fortification walls. Although Emperor Henry VI had given his blessing to the duke’s illicit activities, the pope had not, and in 1194 Leopold V was excommunicated.
The first version of Vienna’s cathedral was completed in 1147 as a small parish church, and was far too large for the tiny population of Vienna at that time. The city would not become important for another ten years, after it was named capital of the Duchy of Austria. A hundred years later, the original church was replaced by one built in the Romanesque style. Its facade, known as the Roman Towers, was preserved when construction of a Gothic church began in 1340.
In 1359, Duke Rudolf IV laid the cornerstone for the soaring Gothic nave, which was completed in 1474. Vienna’s early dukes had not been successful in elevating the town to a bishop’s see, which was necessary for St. Stephen’s to be declared a cathedral; it had always been simply a church within the diocese of Passau. It did not become the seat of a bishop, and thus formally a cathedral, until 1469. St. Stephen’s has undergone many changes since then. As tastes changed, the interior and exterior were mofified to reflect the times. Recent restoration has uncovered traces of older versions of Vienna’s beloved “Steffl”, as the church is known locally.
The sixteenth century was very much focused on rebuilding Vienna’s fortifications, which had been damaged during the Turkish siege of 1529. Work was not quite finished when the Turks returned in 1684. They were stopped just outside Vienna, the gateway to Europe, and never got that far again. Bombardment from Turkish positions in what is today the Wienerwald (”Vienna Woods”) left the city badly damaged in the wake of the Turkish retreat.
Rebuilding Vienna brought a large number of baroque architects to the city. The most beautiful buildings from that time are noble and royal residences, including the Schonbrunn, Liechtenstein, Schwarzenberg and Belvedere Palaces.
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